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After 1841, the colony of Canada comprised Canada West,
overwhelmingly English-speaking and Protestant, and Canada East,
predominantly French-speaking and Roman Catholic, though with a
substantial English-Protestant minority. By the early 1860s, the
legislature, which gave Canada East and West equal weight, had
become paralyzed and the Canadas were headed for divorce. Canada
West longed to secure its economic future by annexing Britain
North America’s western territories. And given its larger
population, negotiating every measure with the French Canadian
minority was also a sore point. For their part, French Canadian
politicians opposed change for fear it would weaken their
minority position. Out of this hopeless political deadlock
emerged the idea of forging a larger British North American union — Confederation.
Britain’s colonies on the Atlantic, meanwhile, were talking
about their own regional union. At a conference in Charlottetown
in 1864, a Canadian delegation, with an ample supply of
champagne and the promise of a railway linking the Maritimes to
Canada, persuaded their hosts of the merits of a much bolder
scheme. In Quebec City, a second conference hammered out the
constitutional details. A national parliament would be elected
on the basis of “rep by pop,” or representation by population,
ensuring a very strong voice for the great plans of Canada West
(and their business allies in Canada East). An appointed Senate
was to represent regions, helping to protect the interests of
the Maritimes which would be outnumbered almost four to one by
the population of the two Canadas. The conference adopted a
federal system largely to ease French Canadian fears of drowning
in an even larger English-speaking Protestant sea. The newly
created provinces, including a separate Quebec, would control
purely local affairs, notably the vital questions of language
and culture.
Still, Confederation talk sparked enthusiasm only in Canada
West. In Canada East, the powerful English-speaking minority’s
fear of French domination was eased by guarantees that minority
language and religious rights would be protected. Many French
Canadians feared Quebec would have less political power in the
new national parliament, but the influential Roman Catholic
Church welcomed the religious and cultural protections
guaranteed by federalism.
Convincing the Maritime colonies proved far harder. Their people
had little in common with Canada save a shared British
allegiance. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island did not even
put Confederation to a vote. And when anti-Confederates won a
landslide election victory in New Brunswick in 1865, and Nova
Scotia’s government retreated, the great dream seemed dead.
External developments saved the day. The threat of American
reprisals against British North America in retaliation for
British support of the Confederacy in the American civil war
alarmed the British government. If united, the colonies could be
made responsible for their collective defence, a face-saving way
for the British to get out if the Americans really did invade.
In 1866, attacks by Irish-American Fenians on New Brunswick
caused panic, bringing home to New Brunswickers the advantages
of joint defence plans with Canada. Finally, Washington’s
announcement that it would end the Reciprocity (Free Trade)
Agreement with British North America in 1866 forced Maritimers
to look to Canadian markets to replace lost American ones. In a
new election, New Brunswickers voted for Confederation, only a
year after the idea had been rejected. Given courage by its
neighbour’s vote, the Nova Scotia legislature also endorsed the
plan.
With everyone finally in agreement, the British North America
Act, creating the Dominion of Canada, quickly passed in the
British parliament, to take effect on July 1, 1867. Some British
North Americans had wanted the name the Kingdom of Canada, but
most feared it would have been too British-sounding for American
ears. The Dominion’s impressive motto, a mari usque ad mare —
from sea to sea — spoke volumes about both Confederation’s dream
and its purpose.
Anti-Confederation forces swept all but one of the Nova Scotia
seats in the first national election, but the new federal
government refused to delay its plans for expansion. Both Ottawa
and London considered Confederation permanent and
anti-Confederation sentiment soon faded away.
Canada eventually did stretch from sea to sea with Manitoba
joining in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island
in 1873, and Newfoundland finally coming aboard in 1949.
Federalism, while necessary for the Fathers of Confederation to
reach agreement, created continuing tensions between the
national and provincial governments. And the failure to protect
French-speaking minorities outside Quebec in the British North
America Act soon strained an already fragile national unity.
Yes, Confederation was a forced creation, a process driven by
the elites, not the peoples’ will. That said, creating Canada
required enormous vision, and given the many obstacles that had
to be overcome, its achievement was a triumph thanks to a
handful of dedicated men in the colonies. But it was John A.
Macdonald, friendly, crafty, and tirelessly committed, who was
Canada’s indispensable man.
Next Instalment: Ontario: Giant of Confederation
The Canadian Experience is a 52-week
history series designed to tell the story of our country to all
Canadians. Sponsored by Multimedia Nova Corporation and
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by our country’s foremost historians on a wide range of topics.
Past articles and author bios are available at
http://www.cdnexperience.ca. The Canadian
Experience is copyright ©2010-2011 Multimedia Nova
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#32 Confederation
